87-5E
THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION:
CANADA'S INVOLVEMENT
Prepared by:
Lynne C. Myers
Science and Technology Division
Revised 5 September 2001
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
ISSUE
DEFINITION
BACKGROUND AND ANALYSIS
A. The Space Station
B. Canada's Space Station Program
1. Program
Objectives: Why Should Canada Participate?
2.
The Mobile Servicing System (MSS)
3.
The Strategic Technologies in Automation and Robotics (STEAR) Program
C. Other International Contributions
1. Kibo
- The Japanese Experimental Module (JEM)
2.
Columbus - The European Space Agency's Pressurized Module (ESA Module)
3.
Russia's Contribution
4.
Progress of ISS Assembly
CHRONOLOGY
SELECTED
REFERENCES
THE INTERNATIONAL
SPACE STATION:
CANADAS INVOLVEMENT*
ISSUE DEFINITION
For many years, the United
States has been actively, and generally successfully, involved in the
exploration of space. It has sent unmanned and manned space craft
into orbit and brought them back. It has landed men on the moon
and seen them return safely to Earth. The space shuttle has demonstrated
the feasibility (and the dangers) of the reusable space craft. The
U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) views the construction
and operation of a permanently manned space station as the critical next
step in advancing human space exploration. The mission of the space
station will be three-fold.
-
First, it will provide
an orbiting research base in which the effects of long stays in space
on human physiology and well-being can be assessed. This information
is essential if the space environment is to continue to be explored
and exploited successfully.
-
The second function
will be as an advanced research laboratory in which the process of
understanding how to utilize the unique features of space near-zero
gravity, near-perfect vacuum and lack of atmospheric interference
to study new materials, new medicines and new technologies
can begin.
-
Finally, the space
station will be an engineering test-bed providing the opportunity
to learn how to build, operate, and maintain complex systems in space.
In 1984, then-President
Reagan committed the United States to building a permanently manned space
station, and invited Canada, Japan and the European Space Agency (ESA)
to join in this ambitious program. In March 1986, Canada announced
its acceptance of the invitation. In the same year, 11 countries
of the ESA and Japan also agreed to participate in the program.
In January 1998, Canada and the other original participants signed a revised
Intergovernmental Agreement establishing a new ISS (International Space
Station) partnership, that had been expanded to include Russia and Brazil.
The new agreements reflected changes to the space station program resulting
from significant Russian participation and design changes that had been
introduced over the years.
The Canadian government
agreed to develop, build, and operate one of the stations mission-critical
elements the Mobile Servicing System (MSS) for assembly,
maintenance and servicing tasks on the space station. The MSS was
to consist of a Mobile Base System, two manipulators (the RMS or Remote
Manipulator System, and the SPDM or Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator)
and the Canadian Space Vision System (CSVS). The following reasons
were cited for Canada becoming involved: the opportunity to build
on our already well-established space industry; the potential for spin-offs
from the advances in robotics and artificial intelligence engendered by
this effort; and future access to the space station for scientific research
and manufacturing. The estimated cost of Canadian participation
was originally set at $800 million but grew over the years to as high
as $1.9 billion by the year 2005. However, federal deficit
reduction efforts necessitated a decrease in Canadas commitment.
Following renegotiations after the 1994 budget, Canada reduced its financial
commitment to $496 million in addition to the $713 million already contributed.
This brings the total down to about $1.2 billion. As detailed elsewhere
in this review, although reducing our financial input, Canada has retained
those portions of the program with the greatest potential for economic
and scientific benefit to Canadians.
BACKGROUND
AND ANALYSIS
A. The Space Station
The U.S. space station
will not be the worlds first; in 1973-1974, Skylab which
could house astronauts for up to three months at a time was already
in orbit above the Earth. Between that time and the 1984 decision
to build the space station, the U.S. concentrated on developing the Space
Shuttle (or STS space transportation system). In the meantime,
the Soviet Salyut program has provided permanent, manned space station
facilities since 1971. Operating the MIR space station for many
years had provided the Soviets with much valuable experience. After
the breakup of the Soviet Union, the future of MIR was questioned, but
it was able to keep operating. Beginning in May 1995, NASA docked
its space shuttles Atlantis and Discovery with the MIR Station ten times
as part of the phase-in of Russian participation in the ISS program.
As it was originally conceived,
the U.S. space station program was ambitious and innovative. The
station was expected to perform a wide range of functions, serving as:
-
a laboratory in space,
for scientific research and the development of new technologies;
-
a permanent observatory,
with elements in low inclination and polar orbits, from which to
observe Earth and the universe;
-
a transportation centre
for stationing payloads and vehicles, processed and deployed to their
destinations;
-
a servicing facility
for maintaining, repairing, and refurbishing payloads and vehicles;
-
an assembly facility
for assembling and checking out large space structures and systems;
-
a facility to enable
manufacturing in space, where the unique environment enhances commercial
opportunities;
-
a storage depot to
keep payloads and parts on orbit for subsequent use; and
-
a staging base for
possible future space projects, such as a permanent lunar base, a
manned mission to Mars, a manned survey of the asteroids, a manned
scientific and communications facility in geosynchronous orbit, or
unmanned planetary probes.
In 1990, budget restrictions
along with some misgivings about the engineering of the proposed
station led Congress to order NASA to review its design and adjust
the program. As a result, a smaller version of the space station
became the official proposal. This 1990 redesign did not affect
the MSS design, and Canada proceeded according to the original criteria
set out by NASA.
Over the years since its
first approval, the U.S. Congress has not provided this project with as
much funding as NASA had requested and expected. For example, NASA
asked for a total of $767 million in 1988, but Congress appropriated only
$393 million. Subsequent years have seen a similar pattern, with
one Congressional Committee in 1992 even voting to stop all funding for
the space station; this funding was restored by the House of Representatives
but at a level of $1.9 billion, rather than the $2.45 billion NASA
had requested. Again in 1993 there were rumours that funding for
the space station would be slashed or eliminated. Early in 1993,
however, the White House announced that it would be requesting $2.305 billion
for the space station, for fiscal year 1994. President Clinton reaffirmed
his support for the program, but at the same time ordered yet another
redesign to cut costs further. Before this new design could be presented
to the President for his approval, negotiations began with Russia, which
wanted to contribute its expertise and hardware to the international space
station. Proponents of the ISS hope that Congress will be less
keen to cut the project now that it has reached the construction phase.
NASAs international partners also hope that further redesigns
will not be required.
As the design has changed,
so too have the official NASA program objectives for the space station,
which are now more immediate, and perhaps less grandiose. The official
objectives were stated as follows:
-
to establish a permanently
manned multi-purpose facility in low Earth orbit (LEO) in the 1990s;
-
to enhance and evolve
mankinds ability to live and work safely in space;
-
to stimulate technologies
of national importance by using them to provide space station capabilities;
-
to provide long-term,
cost-effective operation and utilization of continually improving
facilities for scientific, technological, commercial and operational
activities enabled or enhanced by the presence of mankind in space;
-
to promote substantial
international cooperation in space;
-
to create and expand
opportunities for private-sector activity in space;
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to provide for the
evolution of the space station to meet future needs and challenges;
and
-
to foster public knowledge
and understanding of the role of habitable space system capabilities
in the evolution of human experience outside the Earths atmosphere.
In its original design,
the space station resembled a large rectangle of metal trusses.
The trusses would have been taken into space by the Shuttle and assembled
on-site by the Canadian-made Mobile Servicing System (MSS). In the
most recent redesign of the station, the truss will be pre-integrated
and tested, with all of its subsystems in place before launch. A
number of modules will be launched and docked first, and the
integrated truss structures will then be added. The Canadarm (or
Remote Manipulator System), already in use onboard the Space Shuttle,
will be usedin the early construction of the station, and the MSS will
be used for later construction and maintenance.
The redesigned space station
will be smaller than the original (108 m rather than 150 m) and will
house four to six, rather than eight, astronauts. In addition,
it will be capable of transmitting only about one-sixth as much information
per minute back to Earth. Clearly, the range and number of experiments
that can be carried out with this new configuration will be inferior to
what was originally planned. However, from the Canadian point of
view, these changes are not critical, because both the old and new design
require the MSS.
Launch and construction
plans and schedules are in a continual state of flux. NASA did launch
the first two elements of the space station in November and December 1998,
but the launch of the third element was repeatedly delayed, finally taking
place in July 2000. The current schedule calls for completion of
construction late in 2004. After just the first six assembly flights,
the station will have reached what is called MTC or man-tended capability.
The first three-person resident crew is expected to arrive in October
2000. Once MTC is achieved, there will continue to be numerous shuttle
flights each year for station assembly and maintenance, as well as three
utilization flights each year. During the latter, the Shuttle with
its seven-person crew will dock with the station for about two weeks at
a time; four of the crew will devote their time to carrying out experiments
for space station users. The station is now expected to achieve
PMC, or permanently manned capability, by the year 2004. After this
time, the space station will be permanently manned by a four- to six-member
crew, two of whom will be dedicated to supporting space station user activities
(i.e., carrying out experiments for users). The countries participating
in the operation of the station will share operating costs. They
will have access to time and space in the laboratories in proportion to
their contribution.
B. Canadas Space Station Program
1. Program Objectives: Why Should Canada
Participate?
The answer to this question
is not simple. The many reasons put forward to justify Canadian
participation in this ambitious space program include: achieving
international prestige as a technologically advanced industrial economy;
securing an entrée into important new high-tech fields; generating technological
spin-offs on Earth; buying long-term access to the space environment for
Canadian researchers; and developing a highly qualified work force in
the fields of robotics and automation. In the short term, the technical
and economic spin-offs on Earth are arguably the most significant goals,
together with the creation of a pool of knowledgeable scientists and industrialists
in several emerging technological fields. Officials of the Canadian
Space Agency (CSA) point out that more than $1 billion in business
activity directly related to the space station has already flowed to Canadian
companies, and that this figure is expected to surpass $5 billion over
the next 20 to 25 years. Many of the technologies developed for
the space station, especially in the fields of robotics and automation,
will have terrestrial applications, including work in hostile
environments such as the nuclear industry, mining and offshore resource
development.
In 1991, the Space Station
Program Office of the Canadian Space Agency detailed the program objectives
as follows:
(i) To enhance Canadas
ability to operate in space and to exploit space by:
-
developing and operating
the MSS to play a predominant role in assembling and maintaining
the Space Station;
-
developing and applying
strategic technologies for the MSS, particularly in the fields of
automation and robotics;
-
facilitating participation
in Space Station use by Canadian industry, government, and university
sectors;
-
assuming Canadas
share of Space Station common operations;
-
developing user
demonstration experiments emphasizing technologies with commercial
potential; and
-
participating in
the international management of the Space Station.
(ii) To maximize social
and economic benefits to Canadians by:
At that time, the Canadian
program had four major components, namely:
(i) Development and
operations of the Mobile Servicing System. This was to be Canadas
main contribution to the Space Station, to include a platform, a Remote
Manipulator System, and a Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator; MSS
operations included sophisticated ground-based facilities for simulating
operations planning;
(ii) Operation of the
Space Station. This task was to consist of Canadas contribution
to the operations and maintenance of the Space Station, once launched,
with the help of Canadian Astronauts;
(iii) The Strategic
Technologies in Automation and Robotics (STEAR) program, which consisted
of contracts to industry to develop next-generation technologies for
the continued upgrading and evolution of the MSS; and
(iv) The User Development
Program (UDP) to foster, through contracts with firms and universities,
the Canadian use and commercial exploitation of the Space Station, in
particular microgravity, through development of new materials, products
and processes in space.
This program has changed
somewhat, particularly with respect to Items i and ii, as a result of
the renegotiation of Canadian participation following the 1994 budget.
In Item i, Canada was planning to design and build both the MSS and the
SPDM (Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator) also known as the Canada Hand.
Under the 1994 agreement, Canada was still to complete design and construction
of the MSS, as well as to retain responsibility for its operation once
it was on the station. Canada would, however, complete only the
design of the SPDM; we were given an additional three years to make a
final decision on whether we would also be involved in its construction.
The CSA believed that the new program retained the most important elements
of the old because it would allow Canadian scientists and companies to
continue developing their design expertise in the important automation
and robotics fields. In April 1997, the Prime Minister reversed
the earlier decision and announced that Canada would indeed invest US$150 million
in building the SPDM.
The revolutionary CSVS
(Canadian Space Vision System) which is being developed in a cooperative
program by the Canadian Space Agency and NASA is now also a part
of Canadas involvement in the International Space Station.
It is designed to provide the stations robotic arms with synthetic
visual cues, so they can see what they are doing.
The CSVS began on-orbit testing during a 1992 space shuttle flight.
In November 1995, an advanced version was flown on a mission, during which
it was used in a docking operation in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle.
In December 1998, the CSVS was used in docking the first two space
station components: Zarya and Unity. Its operational performance
met all expectations.
The second major change
to Canadas participation in the space station is that our commitment
to participate in the ongoing operation of the space station (Item ii)
has been dropped completely, for a savings over ten years of approximately
$270 million. Although Canada has deferred using its share of space
station resources, we still have the option of allowing Canadian scientists
access to the station on a case-by-case, pay-as-you-go basis. The
construction of the SPDM is now being used to re-open the possibility
that Canadian scientists might have access to research space on the station.
In fact, Canadian astronauts have been assured of one flight per year
until construction of the station is complete. After that time,
foreign astronauts will undertake the experiments sent to the station
by Canadian researchers. By not using our share of the station resources
(2.3%) on a regular basis, Canada is saving another $75 million.
This change in participation also reduced the necessity for Item iv, the
User Development Program.
It might appear that giving
up regular use of the space station negates Canadas reason for becoming
involved in the first place. Officials at the Canadian Space Agency,
however, insist that the most economic and technological gains for Canada
will be realized by the research and development and industrial activity
resulting from the design and/or construction of the MSS, the SPDM and
the CSVS. The fact that $1 billion in benefits have already been
realized from the $713-million government investment would seem
to lend credence to this claim. In addition, Canadian space scientists
will still have access to the station, albeit on slightly different terms
from those previously envisioned. The following sections look briefly
at the individual elements of the Space Station Program.
2. The Mobile Servicing System (MSS)
In the past, Canada contributed
to the U.S. space program with the very successful Canadarm, which now
flies on almost every space shuttle flight. When asked to join
in the space station program, it was logical for Canada to build on this
expertise. Canada insisted that our participation should entail
more than the provision of a piece of hardware because we wanted to ensure
that our involvement would continue after the station became operational.
After the U.S. had agreed to this demand, Canada agreed to design, build,
and operate the MSS. It is worth noting that, until Russia became
involved in the program, Canada was the only foreign country supplying
what is known as a mission-critical element of the station, i.e., one
that must operate on time and in the prescribed fashion in order for the
mission to continue.
Figure 1 presents an artists
impression of the design of the MSS. This system will play the main
role in the assembly and maintenance of the space station by: moving
equipment and supplies around the station; supporting astronauts during
EVAs (extra vehicular activities); and servicing instruments and other
payloads attached to the station. In addition, the MSS will be used
for docking the visiting space shuttles and for loading and unloading
the shuttle cargo bay. Canada is responsible for the total design,
development and long-term operation of the MSS.
As can be seen in Figure
1, the MSS consists of two main elements. The first is the RMS (or,
in more recent U.S. terminology, the SSRMS or Space Station Remote Manipulator
System), which represents the next generation of the Canadarm now flying
on the four space shuttles. The new arm has seven, rather than six,
motor-driven, computer-controlled joints. The extra joint means
the arm can now mimic most human arm movements. The arm is 17.6
m (58 feet) long and has a payload capacity of 116,000 kg (128 tons).
The SSRMS has been built, has successfully passed the ISS safety review
and the Acceptance Review process, and was delivered to NASA in February
1999. Once installed on the ISS, it will move along the truss structure
of the station on a mobile transporter, or base system, also being supplied
by Canada.
The SSRMS is also designed
to accommodate a second, smaller element, known as the SPDM or special
purpose dextrous manipulator. This robot (known affectionately to
its developers as Hector the Erector) will have two seven-jointed
arms, each about 2 m (6.65 ft) long; its remarkable mechanical dexterity
will enable it to undertake more delicate jobs such as working on electrical
circuits, fuel lines and cooling systems. Advances in robotics,
vision systems and artificial intelligence have provided the SPDM with
very human-like senses. For example, the SPDM will have three separate
cameras which allow it to see its way around the station.
It can recognize targets and adjust its own position in response.
Sophisticated software programs also prevent the two arms from colliding
with one another, and automatically keep the elbow from hitting anything,
or anyone, when the arms are reaching to grasp a target. In addition
to seeing, with the help of the space vision system, this robot can also
feel. It is equipped with force-sensing systems which
tell it just how hard it is touching, pushing, pulling or twisting something.
Given this ability, the SPDM can be used to repair and/or replace delicate
electronic parts or tighten bolts without risk of stripping them.
These abilities will relieve astronauts of the necessity to go out into
space to undertake routine repairs.
Figure 1
Space Station Mobile Servicing System
and Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator
Source:
Technical and Administrative Services, NASA, Space Station Freedom
Media Handbook, p. 78.
The SSRMS and SPDM are
designed for a lifetime greater than ten years, and must withstand the
stresses of prolonged exposure in space with maximum reliability.
Canadas success in meeting the stringent demands for the Canadarm
led NASA to entrust us with the SSRMS and SPDM development. The
industrial team responsible for most of the SSRMS and SPDM components
reflects the goal of spreading the government space-related expenditures
throughout the country. The team is headed by Spar Aerospace (based in
Montreal and Toronto). Other companies involved include IMP Group
(Halifax), CAE Electronics (Montreal), CAL Corporation (Ottawa), SED Systems
(Saskatoon) and MacDonald Dettwiler Associates (Richmond, B.C.).
The SPDM is expected to be delivered to NASA in 2001, and will be installed
aboard the International Space Station during a future mission.
Canadas Space Station
Program also includes highly sophisticated ground facilities. The
ground-based segment is known as the MSS Operations Complex (MOC) and
is located at Canadian Space Agency (CSA) headquarters in Saint-Hubert,
Quebec. It provides the infrastructure, resources, equipment and
expertise for MSS space operations. The MOC is a state-of-the-art centre
that houses a number of operation and training facilities, including the
Space Station Operations Support Centre, MSS Simulation Facility, Operations
Kinematic Simulator and the Canadian SSRMS (Space Station Remote Manipulator
System) Training Facility. As the CSA noted in a recent publication,
Controllers use the MOC to plan complex SSRMS manoeuvres before
they are put into action on Space Station. They will also monitor
the health of the MSS and its complex hardware and software systems.
Space Station astronauts and cosmonauts from many countries will visit
the MOC to learn about the MSS and how to operate it in the rigours of
space.
3. The Strategic Technologies in Automation
and Robotics (STEAR) Program
The STEAR program is designed
to allow for the continued development and integration of new technologies
into the MSS during its expected 30-year mission. The goal is to
ensure that the MSS does not become obsolete. Because all these
new technologies will have to meet space qualifications, their development
will be lengthy and many of the first applications are likely to be terrestrial
spin-offs.
The advanced, strategic
technologies being supported by STEAR via contracts to industry include
automation of operations and expert systems, health monitoring and automated
power management, autonomous robotics, enhanced space vision systems,
trajectory planning and object avoidance (keeping the SPDM from colliding
with other things), and the protection of materials in the space environment.
To date, STEAR funding has been awarded to more than 120 partnerships
across the country. These partnerships involve over 80 companies
and 40 universities and research organizations.
C.
Other International Contributions
1. Kibo The Japanese Experimental Module
(JEM)
Japan, like Canada, is
participating in the space station project. Its contribution will
be a laboratory to accommodate general scientific and technology development
research activities including microgravity studies. The JEM was
recently given the name Kibo, which means hope. It will have
a pressurized module, which will be a 10-m long tube with a 4.2-m diameter.
There will also be a smaller exposed facility, and an airlock joining
those first two elements, as well as a local remote manipulator and an
experiment logistics module (ELM). The ELM attaches to the laboratory
and can be removed, returned to Earth to deliver experiments and products
made in space, refilled with new materials and supplies, and returned
to the station to be reattached to Kibo. Kibo itself attaches to
the basic truss framework of the station. The ELM is being made
compatible with Japans own launch vehicle, the H-2. Japan
has agreed to spend about $2 billion on its space station contribution,
which is scheduled to be launched in October 2002.
2. Columbus The European Space Agencys
Pressurized Module (ESA Module)
The European Space Agency
(ESA) is developing an attached, pressurized,
multi-purpose laboratory as part of its contribution to the
space station. This facility, which will be almost 12 m long with
a diameter of 4.5 m, will be permanently attached to the space station.
It is designed for international use principally in the fields of fluid
physics, life sciences research and materials research. The module
will provide a shirt-sleeve environment in which scientists can work.
Like Japans Kibo
and the U.S. laboratory and habitation modules, Columbus will include
storage capacity and accommodation for what is known as crew safe-haven
capability. In other words, in the event of an emergency,
the space station crew would have sufficient supplies and accommodation
to await rescue. Columbus is currently scheduled for launch in 2004.
The ESA is also developing
the automated transfer vehicle (ATV), which will handle the carrying of
supplies to and waste from the ISS. The first ATV
mission is scheduled for 2003.
3. Russias Contribution
With the end of the Cold
War, Russia and the United States began a number of joint scientific undertakings.
Russias experience with the MIR Space Station prompted the United
States to invite Russian participation in the International Space Station
(ISS). Russia agreed to allow U.S. astronauts access to the MIR
station to gain experience and also undertook to use its expertise to
build several elements of the ISS. The U.S. provided the design
and the financing for construction in Russia of the Zarya (Sunrise) module,
otherwise known as the Functional Cargo Block. This, the first element
of the ISS in space, will eventually function as a storage facility.
Russia is also contributing
two Soyuz spacecraft to act as crew-escape vehicles, as well as the use
of its Proton heavy lift vehicle (rocket) to launch elements of the station.
This relieves the U.S. of the necessity of developing its own heavy lift
vehicle, needed to supplement Space Shuttle flights during assembly of
the ISS. However, the 1999 crash of two different Proton rockets
shortly after lift-off caused NASA a great deal of concern with respect
to Russias ability to meet its commitments. It also delayed
the launch of the Zvezda Service Module.
The Zvezda Service Module
is the most complex Russian contribution. This module will serve
as the early living quarters for astronauts assembling the ISS and contains
vital life-support and propulsion elements. Zvezda was originally
scheduled for launch on a Proton rocket in November 1999; however, lack
of financial resources and Proton rocket failures caused many delays and
the launch date was repeatedly pushed back. NASA has provided additional
money in the hope of getting the project on track; until Zvezda is in
place, further construction of the ISS is not possible. Although
Zvezda has now been launched, Russian authorities announced that, because
of financial constraints, all work has stopped on the remaining eight
space station elements that Russia had agreed to supply. In addition,
it is likely that Russia will not be able to provide the Proton-rocket
launch support it had promised. Financial problems in Russia are
raising serious concern in the U.S. Congress over the rising costs that
will ensue if NASA ultimately has to supply the Russian elements.
4. Progress of ISS Assembly
The Russian-built Zarya
(Sunrise) module was launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan on 20 November
1998. The module contains engines, fuel and communication devices.
On 4 December 1998, the second element of the space station was launched
aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The Endeavour
carried the U.S. docking module, Unity, into orbit. In the weeks
following the launch, the space shuttle crew carried out three space walks
to connect power and data transmission cables between Zarya and Unity.
Unity is a six-sided structure; each side has an attachment port to which
future modules will be connected.
In May-June 1999, Canadian
astronaut Julie Payette, along with six others, travelled aboard the Space
Shuttle to the fledgling ISS. No new elements of the station were
added, as this was a logistics flight. The crew transferred
about 3,600 pounds of parts, tools, computers, water and clothes from
the Space Shuttle to the station, in preparation for the arrival of the
first permanent residents sometime in 2000. The shuttle crew was
also able to repair a communications system on Unity and replace flawed
battery packs on Zarya.
The next scheduled launch
was to be in November 1999, when Russia was expected to launch its Zvezda
module aboard a Proton rocket. As already noted, this launch was
delayed, but did finally take place on 12 July 2000. On 26 July
2000, Zvezda successfully docked with the Zarya and Unity modules.
Throughout the remainder
of 2000 and continuing into early 2001, the pace of activity connected
to the ISS increased. A total of three missions to the space station
occurred in October and November 2000.
-
First, the Shuttle
carried the girder-like truss structure and associated electronics
to the ISS. The crew installed this equipment, which will support
the additional elements of the station as they arrive on site.
-
The next to arrive
at the station were the three members of the Expedition 1 crew who
were the first long-term residents of the station. They were
scheduled to remain there for approximately four months. The
Expedition 1 crew travelled to the ISS aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
The Soyuz module will remain at the station to act as the emergency
crew evacuation vehicle.
-
On the next shuttle
flight in November 2000, the first solar photovoltaic arrays
that will power the space station were delivered and installed.
The array travelled in the Space Shuttle in a compacted form and had
to be installed and then deployed after reaching the station.
In February 2001, the
Space Shuttle again travelled to the ISS. This time it carried the
U.S. laboratory module Destiny which is one of the largest
single elements to be added to the station thus far. It will be
the centre for research activities on the ISS. An unprecedented
number of space walks were required to safely attach the Destiny
module to the truss structure and to the other modules. This task
was successfully completed. During the next shuttle flight, in March
2001, the Expedition 1 crew was exchanged for the next residents (Expedition
2). That flight also entailed the delivery and installation of the
Italian-built reusable Leonardo logistics module (the equipment racks
that will outfit the Destiny laboratory).
In April 2001,
Canadas major contribution the Space Station Remote Manipulator
System (SSRMS) was launched and installed. The new generation
of robotic arm will work with the Shuttle-based Canadarm to lift and hold
subsequent parts of the ISS as they arrive and are installed. The
second Multi-Purpose Logistics Module, Raffaello, was delivered on the
same shuttle mission. This flight was followed in July 2001 by
delivery and installation of a second (Russian) docking port (airlock).
In August 2001,
the Expedition 2 crew exchanged places with the Expedition 3 crew on the
next Space Shuttle mission to the ISS. In mid-September 2001, the
Russian Soyuz docking port will arrive at the ISS on board the shuttle.
CHRONOLOGY
25 January 1984
The President announced that the U.S. would have a permanently manned
space station by the end of the decade.
18 March 1986
The Prime Minister announced Canadas acceptance of the invitation
to participate in the space station program.
December 1987
Canadian and U.S. negotiators agreed on the text of a Memorandum of Understanding
governing Canadian participation in the Space Station Project. (It
was finalized after Cabinet and Congressional approval early in 1988.)
21 April 1988
The government announced its decision to commit $1.2 billion over
15 years to the realization of the Mobile Servicing System (MSS)
for the U.S. Space Station.
10 May 1990
Bill C-16, An Act to establish the Canadian Space Agency and other matters
in relation to space, was given Royal Assent. The Space Station
Management Program, formerly part of the National Research Council, falls
within the mandate of the new Canadian Space Agency.
August 1994
A redesigned space station, with Russian participation, received U.S.
Congressional approval. Construction of station components was now
under way.
November 1995
An advanced version of the Canadian Space Vision System flew on a space
shuttle mission and was used in a docking exercise.
April 1997
Canada agreed to construct the SPDM (Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator)
for the International Space Station.
29 January 1998
Canada signed the revised Inter-Governmental Agreement, an international
treaty establishing the new International Space Station (ISS) partnership
including Russia.
October 1998
Canadas station robotic arm, the SSRMS, was delivered to NASA.
20 November 1998
The first ISS element, the Russian-made Functional Cargo Block
(FCB), called Zarya (Sunrise), was launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan.
4 December 1998
The docking Module, Unity 3, was launched aboard the Space Shuttle,
Endeavour. It was mated to the Zarya module on 5 December,
using the Canadarm aboard the Endeavour, and guided by the Canadian Space
Vision System.
12 July 2000
The Service Module Zvezda was launched. It successfully docked with
the ISS and was added to the growing station.
October-November 2000
The main truss structure that will support the ISS was added,
as were the first large solar arrays that will supply power to the station.
The first residents of the ISS, a three-man crew, took up residence in
the station for a four-month stay.
February 2001
The U.S.-built laboratory module, Destiny, was added to the ISS.
March 2001
The Expedition 2 three-man crew arrived to replace the Expedition 1
crew, and the Leonardo logistics module was delivered and installed in
Destiny.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Canadian Space Agency.
-
Canadian Space
Station Program. 1998.
-
Federal Government
Approves New Direction for Space Program. 3 June 1994.
-
Summary of Canadian
Space Station Program. Economic Performance. 12
July 1993.
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration. A Key to Discovery. The International
Space Station Fact Book. October 2000 (http://spaceflight.nasa.gov).
* The original version of this Current Issue Review
was published in February 1987; the paper has been updated regularly since
that time.
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